Posted 7:41 PM by *cnn
Iranian Balloons: Panahi and the West

The ‘discovery’ of Iranian cinema in Western festival circles over the last ten or so years has made almost household names of directors like Abbas Kiarostami and Mohsen Makhmalbaf, while many (nay, most) Iranian filmmakers remain unknown and impoverished, refused classification by strict censorship regulations that have been in place, more or less consistently, since cinema’s entrance into Iran in the earliest years of the twentieth century.

Azadeh Farahmand materially relates Iran’s internationally cinematic presence with the economic crisis embattling that nation when he says, “international markets have become viable arenas for increasing film revenue and supplementing the likelihood of future production.” But he qualifies his analysis by noting that the state apparatus has realized this potentiality and utilized the cinema to “renegotiate the imagery of the nation”.

The existence of such a strictly controlled internal market makes the international festival circuit a realistic avenue to ensure widespread exposure for the recent Iranian cinematic product. In turn this implies that the Iranian films shown around the world are in some aspect actually created for such an audience, and as such do not represent truly local culture , but instead an amalgam of (a) what some Iranians believe Americans, Europeans and even Australians want to believe (be told) about their current national climate and historical viewpoint and (b) what the clerics in Tehran edify as worthy of export from the Islamic Republic.

Festival audiences have been taught a ‘way’ of reading ‘world cinema’ that is often simplistic and sometimes completely ignorant of the influence of global economic and political realities. In the case of Iran, the fact of the Islamic Revolution of 1979 and the situation of women within this society colours the vision that Western eyes see. Films that are screened in festivals are praised as beacons of hope for the artistic viability of the Iranian people, while ‘good’ representations of women are lauded as an aberration of systemic abuse.

As Iranian scholar Hamid Dabashi puts it,

“Iranian cinema took the world by surprise simply because the world got a glimpse of our cinema only after it had decided the character of our culture through the prism of the Islamic Revolution. These disabling circumstances and our liberating vision did not quite add up.”
The White Balloon (1996) was Jafar Panahi’s directorial debut, after working with the revered Kiarostami on Through the Olive Trees (1994). It tells a simple story of a young girl who loses the last money her mother has on the way to buy a fish. While this film is the focus of the following essay, I would like to first visit a few of the loci that we will use to analyse the film, including a brief history of Iran’s political and cultural development through the twentieth century, and a critique of ‘orientalism’, the study of non-Western cultural forms and the particularly imperial mindset it inherits.
Melbourne film critic Adrian Martin rightly criticizes the West’s propensity for unifying ‘outsider’ culture when in fact, much like the West, the Other is a multifarious and heterogeneous entity. Of the ‘recent Iranian cinema’ Martin describes it thus;
“Of course, this is not the entirety of Iranian cinema. And this small movement – if that's not too grand a term for it – tends to be, really, a kind of spontaneous school or family happening around one person, a key figure in Iranian cinema. This figure is [Abbas] Kiarostami [who is already] a formidable, almost mythical figure to many hardcore cinephiles and critics”
But I’m rushing ahead of myself here. For now I want to talk about the author of the quote that is my guideline, and his theories of cultural hegemony.

The Orient
“Abstractions from the Orient…are always preferable to direct evidence drawn from modern Oriental realities.”

While it may seem archaic to discuss Western reception to non-Western film through the prism of imperialism, it is necessary to insist, as Edward Said did in the landmark book Orientalism, that the cultural heritage of imperialism remains.

Orientalism opened a fissure within Western cultural discourse that is still being explored today. Said defines the Orient as a European invention present since antiquity as “a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting memories and landscapes, remarkable experiences.”

The importance of the Orient to the Western European imagination cannot be underestimated.
“The Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europe’s greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the Other”.

The Orient’s position as Other reflects the self-image of Western Europe, and the attitudes that developed, particularly in Britain and France, allowed for the moral superiority that validated imperial conquest.

The Palestinian intellectual Edward Said well understands and articulates the practical effects of such an all-encompassing image. He sees that relationship between the Occident (his term for the normalized Christian, European culture) and the Orient as “a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony.” When a viewer from the West chooses to absorb an abstracted idea about ‘the Orient’ he is already logged into a totalizing discourse that places him superior to that Other.

The case of assumed identity surrounding Iran and its cinematic presence in the West can be explained, at least partially through this prism.

“…the imaginative examination of things Oriental was based more or less exclusively upon a sovereign Western consciousness out of whose unchallenged centrality an Oriental world emerged, first according to a detailed logic governed not simply by empirical reality but by a battery of desires, repressions, investments and projections.”

I would love to now investigate Gramsci’s theories of cultural hegemony but I will stay on track and instead return to Iran.

A very brief history of Iranian cinema
On 18 August 1900, an Iranian looked at the world through a camera for the first time. This same year a moviehouse opened in Iran. Yet it was not until 1948 that the first Persian language film was made in Iran (The Tempest of Life by Esma’il Kushan). Since then, the Iranian cinema has developed in coincidence with the extending arm of colonialism, while always entwined in Persian and Arabic cultural forms that date back millennia.

From 1906 to 1911 Iran was rocked by the Constitutional revolution, which disposed of a medieval absolutist monarchy and replaced it with a constitutional government; all the while colonial forces competed for Iranian markets and resources. In terms of material conditions, Iran was exposed to modernity through its colonial agency. Oil was discovered 1908. By 1912 the Anglo-Persian Oil Company is producing and exporting petroleum. Hamid Dabashi infers that, “as far as its cultural conditions permitted, [Iran] could not but face that modernity with medieval morality” In art, however, he believes there was (and is) an uncontainable energy.

The constitution stipulated to limit the power of the monarch, establish a parliament with sole power to legislate, enable the formation of political parties, put a prime minister in charge of the administrative apparatus of the state, and create an autonomous judicial system.

By 1914 the world is at war, and the Allied forces occupy Iran, with Russia controlling the north and the British claiming the south. The ideals of the Constitutional revolution are all but forgotten, as the weak Qajar dynasty is being overrun by colonial superpowers. By 1921 the Iranian Communist (Tudeh) Party has been founded and after a coup a young colonel Reza Khan is made minister of war. Also at this time there was a flowering of artistic life, with a great number of modernist poems and stories marking an aesthetic space beyond “the colonially conditioned modernity and clerically militated anti-modernity” But as yet there is little film.

In 1926 Reza Shah is crowned shah and begins to instigate a massive program of modernization, in the process creating a commercial film industry. Almost simultaneous with the release of The Lor Girl (Ardeshir Irani, 1936) the Shah banned the wearing of the chador by women. The coincidence marked the parallel fate of modernity and Iranian cinema. The unveiling of women became a major feature of the infant art form, a positive step towards emancipation from patriarchally mandated seclusion.

When Allied forces again occupied Iran in 1941, the Shah abdicated and handed power to his son, Mohammad Reza Shah, who would reign from 1941 until his downfall in the course of the Islamic Revolution.

In 1951 Mohammed Mosaddiq became Prime Minister, and with the support of parliament attempted to nationalize the oil industry as well as insisting on parliamentary reforms that would limit the Shah’s power, forcing him to leave the country. A CIA-engineered coup toppled Mosaddiq’s government and returned the Shah to power (in 1953) beginning a sustained period of American involvement in domestic Iranian politics. Hamid Dabashi curtly summarises the effects, “with the Shah back in power with full American support, Iran is entirely at the service of US imperialism.”

The 1950’s see a rise in the number of cinemas in Iran and in the number of Iranian productions per year, yet it is a purely commercial project, with many Hollywood westerns and Indian musicals more popular than the Filmfarsi, the native melodramatic film product. .

Taking advantage of political uncertainty, Ayatollah Khomeini led a mass uprising in June 1963. It was crushed and he was exiled first to Turkey, then Iraq. The Shah instigated a ‘cosmetic modernity’, including a nationwide attempt to make the rural masses literate.

The 1970’s brought the promise of political and cultural possibility. Tehran University in particular became the scene of numerous confrontations between students and the police. In the realm of cinema there was movement. Sohrab Shahid Sales’ Yek Ettefaq-e Sadeh (One Simple Incident, 1973) and Tabi’at-e Bijan (Still Life, 1975) with their passive documentation of reality and lucid narration would have an enduring effect on much of Kiarostami and Makhmalbaf’s oeuvres in the 1980’s and 1990’s.

Early in 1979 the Shah fled, and Ayatollah Khomeini returned and took power. In November of that year the American Embassy was seized by a group of radical Muslim students and the diplomatic staff were taken hostage. This lasted for 444 days and resulted in all US-Iranian diplomatic ties being severed. This relationship is only now being slowly developed through student exchange programs and film festivals.

The White Balloon (Jafar Panahi, 1996)
The White Balloon is the first Iranian film to get an art-house cinema release in Australia, which is some kind of milestone. It is a neo-realist glimpse of modern Tehran life as seen through a child's eyes, a favoured starting point for many of Kiarostami’s narratives.
In these particular Iranian films, adults tend to be seen by children as fuzzy, fascinating creatures; they're frightening strangers one moment, tender angels the next. This random procession of adults brings in to the child's fragile circle of experience traces of a mysterious social order, of law and prohibitions, games and seductions, war and romance. It also lets in the traces of a modern and multi-cultural society, as for instance here with the intriguing figure of a young Afghan street seller.

As the opening credits roll, the sounds of the street can be heard. A minute later we are on the street, and being introduced to the characters that will flit in and out of the story; an army jeep drops off the soldier, the Afghani balloon seller is plying his trade. The radio counts down the hours until New Year, a clever temporal reference that is used throughout the film. Eventually we get to the mother, who is searching the market for her daughter, Razieh (Aida Mohammadkhani). As they walk home the girl is distracted by the snake charmers but her mother command her home. It is the girl’s dream to buy a new goldfish from the market for New Year. She is not satisfied with the fish in her family’s pond. Her desire can be read as a movement away from community values to a more commercial imperative. But it can also be interpreted as a simple narrative ploy that validates the entire film.

The representations of adults are illuminating. The father is visually absent from the entire film. The snake charmers take her money from the glass bowl, but eventually one decides to return it to her after he sees her distress. The goldfish seller decides the fish she wants is 200 tomans, not the 100 tomans he originally quoted. A woman in the shop takes it upon herself to help the child, and then leaves her suddenly once she has found the money (still under a grate). The army man returns and strikes up a conversation with the girl, then also leaves suddenly. Finally the balloon seller comes along with the stick that will be their savior. When the money is found the film is finished. As the balloon seller watches the children leave, the snake charmers walk by and give a man a match, the singing bicyclist (“The sea is rough, my brother”) rides past, and the film finishes on a freeze frame as the boy with the white balloon looks off screen right and makes to leave off screen left.
The White Balloon seems to hide something, referring to a secret, some possibly overlooked dimension in the story that we have followed in its unfolding. In this story, the white balloon has nothing to do with the little girl and her goldfish. Its presence near the end of the tale, finally frozen in the very last frame, points to another story of the everyday, a story with a perhaps even harsher pathos than that of the girl.

Conclusion
Adrian Martin seems to pin down festival fascination with Iranian cinema with his own strand of Orientalist analysis, the effect of “a certain plaintive note of romance...the romanticisation of national cinemas and film styles that are tacitly assumed to be simple, primitive, peasant-like, pre-modern or pre-industrial, pre-high technology at any rate.”

He also points towards the possibility that “the members of the Kiarostami 'family' sometimes create or encourage this primitivist impression. It's an impression that can be easily packaged off and sold to film cultures like our own as some quaint novelty from an exotic world.”

Jafar Panahi, director of The White Balloon, and lately The Circle neatly sums up the philosophy that motivates his character portrayals, as well as the economic realities of our global economy, which inevitably deals in culture as well as more basic commodities.

“In my view, everyone in the world lives within a circle, either due to economic, political, cultural, or family problems or traditions. The radius of the circle can be smaller or larger. Regardless of the geographic location, they live within a circle. I hope that if this film [The Circle] has any kind of effect on anyone, it would be to make them try to expand the size of the radius.”

The festival enterprise is both a result of western media fascination with ‘emerging’ cinemas (or cultures generally) and a concerted effort by Iranian filmmakers to get their product shown to a receptive audience. Though this product is invariably altered in the process of global transaction, the ultimate aim of producing and receiving a ‘modern Oriental reality’ should be kept at the forefront of critique and reception.


Annotated bibliography
Dabashi, H., Close Up Iranian Cinema: Past, Present and Future, Verso, London and New York, 2001.
An excellent reference for anyone with an interest in Iranian cinema, Close up charts the life of cinema in Iran from its inception (in 1933) through the turbulent decades both before and after the Islamic Revolution in 1979. It includes a complete chapter dedicated to Mohsen Makhmalbaf, who is, along with Abbas Kiarostami, one of the defining figures of the Iranian national cinema. I am hugely indebted to this book for its historical and cultural critique of Iran pre- and post-Revolution.

Issari, M. Ali. Cinema in Iran, 1900-1979, Scarecrow Press, London, 1989.

Farahmand, A., ‘Perspectives on Recent (International Acclaim for) Iranian Cinema’, The New Iranian Cinema: Politics, Representation and Identity, ed. Richard Tapper, London and New York, I.B. Taurus, 2002, pp86-108.
The required reading for the Iranian component of our cinema course, this article explores the relationships between economy, politics and history.

MacKenzie, J.M., Orientalism: History, theory and the arts, Manchester UP, Manchester and New York, 1995.
Although a little too historical for practical use on this essay MacKenzie’s book offers a wealth of information regarding representation of the Orient in art, architecture, design, music and the theatre. Sadly, film does not get a separate chapter.

Said, E.W., Orientalism, Penguin, London, 1995 (first published by Routledge in 1978).
The book that invigorated debate regarding Western attitudes to the Other, questioning the validity of an authorial voice embedded in a position of power in discourse. Most of the academic discuse on the Orient since 1978 has referenced this seminal text, often with partial qualifiers the only addition.

Said, E.W., Culture and Imperialism, Vintage, London, 1994.
Following on from the success of Orientalism, Said took 16 years to update. The result, Culture and Imperialism, is an encyclopedic study of imperialism and imperial culture, taking stock off all major loci of

Said, E.W., ‘The Clash of Ignorance’, The Nation, October 22 2001, pp11-13.
A response to Samuel Huntington’s ‘The Clash of Civilizations’ published just after the terror attacks of September 11, 2001, this article argues against Huntington’s main thesis that conflict in the ‘new world’ will be defined along cultural, rather than ideological or economic, lines.

Spurr, D., The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial discourse in journalism, travel writing and imperial administration, Duke UP, Durham and London, 1993.
David Spurr aims to investigate the methods, conscious or not, of Western writers on the Orient and other ‘exotic’ locales and peoples. By reexamining the history, politics, psychology and language of colonization after the fact of its huge influence Spurr endeavors to understand how nonfiction narratives are shaped by, and shape, the colonial imagination.

Web-bases Sources
Interviews with Jafar Pahani, director of The White Balloon, on the UK’s Independent website (http://enjotment.independent.co.uk/low_resw/story.jsp?story=441440&host=5&dir=213) and the World Socialist Web Site (http://www.wsws.org/articles/2000/oct2000/pan-o02.shtml) were of invaluable help in accessing the author.

Senses of cinema website, http://www.sensesofcinema.com, is an exceptional reference point for studies of the cinema. For this essay I am indebted in particular to Adrian Martin’s article ‘The White Balloon and Iranian Cinema’ (www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/01/15/panahi_balloon.html), as well as Ben Zipper’s overview of local festival attention on Iranian films, ‘Iranian cinema at MIFF 2000’ (www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/00/9/iranian.html)

Posted 10:15 AM by *cnn
Get lost, Bitch; Australian anxieties and cinematic representations

Along with the Ocker, the Battler, the Pioneer and the Anzac, the image of the lost child, and in particular that of the lost girl/s, has been a constant reference point for the stories told in the Australian national cinema. The distinctive imagery of the Australian bush is often juxtaposed with the innocence and naïveté of children, eventuating in a timeless battle between the most vulnerable members of our self-proclaimed Culture and a seemingly limitless, often indifferent Nature. At its very simplest, this story speaks of the strangeness of the land we inhabit, and the toil that is white Australia’s survival. It follows from this that the story of Australian cinematic identity has always been a masculinist one. It is the story of tough men surviving the Outback, battling the elements; sometimes winning, but usually calling a wary armistice with his surroundings. Into this schema the Lost Girl Story has transpired, showing up Man’s inability to protect his progeny.

Since the very first Europeans arrived in Australia, the experience of the hostility of the terrain has morphed into a grand myth of human perseverance. The story is generally not one of conquering the environment, unlike the American Wild West myth. The best that white (colonial and post-colonial) Australians can hope for is an uneasy truce with the landscape they encounter. The implied danger of the Outback continues to haunt the Australian psyche, even as we grow in understanding, experience and respect for it. As Peter Pierce asserts in The Country of Lost Children; An Australian Anxiety, the lost (European) child remains an arresting figure in the history and the folklore of colonial Australia, providing a repository of cultural knowledge that filmmakers (as well as writers, painters, tourism companies) continue to tap to this day.

Although in the beginning most lost children were ‘taken’ by their surroundings, as the country grew a new disappearance anxiety surfaced. Now we must also fear our children coming to harm at the hands of people, either known or unknown to them. The countless true stories of children lost touch a nerve in the collective Australian consciousness. The mystery of Jaidyn Leskie’s 1997 disappearance and death is but one case in point. In 1993, 32 year-old Paul Aiton was convicted of killing his de facto’s son, Daniel Valerio. Before that the whole country wondered (still wonder, killed by human or animal agency?) just what happened to Azaria Chamberlain at Uluru in August 1980. The Beaumont children vanished from Glenelg Beach on Australia Day 1966 and have not been seen since.

These and many more non-fiction narratives provide fodder for the film industry to feed off, as Fred Schepsi’s Evil Angels (1988) demonstrates. These filmic representations can be seen as the continuation of earlier painting, poetry and theatre that mused on adult guilt in failing to protect the vulnerable.

The Aboriginal stolen generations offer a collective ‘lost children’ narrative that white Australia is still trying to navigate. Rabbit Proof Fence (Noyce, 2002), One Night the Moon (Perkins, 2001) and Beneath Clouds (Sen, 2002) show that finally this history is being allowed a filmic space. Walkabout (Roeg, 1970) is a notable early exception, although this was a film made by an Englishman with a lost white girl as chief protagonist. But more about these films later.

In the introduction to Critical Business, Sandra Hall sums up the ‘Australian dilemma’ – that of “a Peter Pan country committed in theory to all the responsibilities of worldliness, even as it draws back for fear of being exploited by the larger and the more powerful.” Coupling this fear of exploitation with wariness towards our own landscape (or our place in that landscape) makes for a climate of cultural unease.

The specificity of Australian lost girls is that they are habitually lost in that Aussie icon, the Outback. This is a landscape most Australians have not actually experienced, yet through constant representation on the big screen can instantly identify. This landscape is often a potent character, which encloses, isolates, dominates and inspires.

The Australian film industry has, on the whole, adopted the classical narrative structure used so successfully by Hollywood. It has only needed to tweak the formula to local tastes and imagery to be successful. The threat to innocence is a basic device used by melodrama to generate audience involvement, and in its Australian incarnation it incorporates the cultural baggage that comes from being a young, pioneering country, its peoples out of place and isolated from what they know, often not here by choice.

Picnic at Hanging Rock (Peter Weir, 1975) was one of the first Australian films to achieve commercial success, both here and overseas, while eschewing classical Hollywood melodrama in favour of a more European, art-house sentiment.

Based on a book of the same name (Joan Lindsay, 1967) it opens on St Valentine Day, 1900, with a school party that sets out to picnic at the picturesque and geographically isolated Hanging Rock. They eat, drowse, gossip and four of them go off to explore. They go to sleep on the rock and later wake. Three move further up the rock in a trance and the fourth panics and calls them back. They ignore her and she runs back to the group, passing the maths mistress on the way, who is also heading towards the rock. Weir follows the book meticulously, surrendering to a mystification of the landscape that “invests it with a power to enchant and lure that is deliciously fatal”.

Appleyard College is a sort of temple to innocence, a “place of sunlight and sentimental friendships”. Conversely, the Rock can be read as representing what is sinister in Nature. The girls set out from their cultivated place of education, on an excursion in the wilderness that ultimately (and mysteriously) becomes their demise. Picnic is set in the border territory between civilization and its absence; a tea-tent sits beside the river, but the guests must pick their way through overgrown grass. Stylistically obtuse, it expresses a suspicion that Europeans do not belong in this country; that all would be better if they went back to England, or to another time, or simply vanished completely.

Reading further into the film, a tension exists between sexual repression and liberation. It implies a link between the behaviour of the girls on the Rock and a general notion of sexual repression within the school. What compelled the girls further and further into the wilderness that eventually swallowed them up? Could it have been the persuasive, natural sensuality of the location; the phallic Rock?

Another film that follows ‘girls’ to a Rock is The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (Stephan Elliott, 1994). This film is a variation on many themes. It as a dressing-up of the road movie and of the buddy flick, while also offering a new take on the ‘lost girls in Australian Outback’ theme. Their journey is known; by choice they hop on a lavender-painted bus to go west from Sydney to a cabaret assignment in the middle of the desert. These ‘girls’ are only, from a socially accepted viewpoint, sexually and culturally lost. The film plays on this notion by showing their journey as a search for identity. Needless to say the bus breaks down and they are forced to interact with the locals; their planned excursion becomes an epic journey of self-discovery.

At one point in the film (after Felicia is saved from a beating by Bernadette) the three; father and drag queen Mitzy, loud-mouthed Felicia and transvestite Bernadette, agree that the boundaries of Sydney “keep us safe”, something that the Outback does not promise.

The film is built around the incongruity between the outback and its citizens and the drag queens that travel through the landscape. Along the way they come across all manner of Australian oddities; they witness the sex tricks of a Filipino bride, convince a Aboriginal man to don a frock, and parade along the main street of Cooper Pedy in outrageous costumes, much to the amusement of the townsfolk. Yet when one digs below the colour and sequins, the self-deprecating humour and the lip-synced Abba hits, Priscilla remains a story of survival, using the expanse of Australia’s interior as a metaphor for the inhospitality of societal attitudes. The mean-spirited moments are beset by an overarching sentimentality and vision of a tolerant world that only rejects the unfamiliar.

The film was a mammoth hit both in Australia and in international markets, winning an Oscar for best costume design and voted most popular film at Cannes in 1994.

Now I would like to backtrack and sidestep slightly. It is the early 1970’s, and the government is beginning its program of intensified funding for film production (also known as ‘the Revival’). The industry is moribund, relying on Hollywood and to a lesser extent Europe for its cultural and aesthetic direction.
Film writer and director Justine Kelly speaks of growing up in rural Australia in this period.
“Where I come from, in the ‘70s, national pride remained something unspoken of. What made rural Australians special was the land we lived on and its rugged beauty rather than our history or our culture…we always felt very small in comparison to the land. We also felt small, young and in the shadow of other cultures. We spoke about our inadequacies in comparison to Europe or America. And the cinema was essentially Hollywood: glamorous and familiar characters in neat, familiar situations. They seemed too exciting for Australians to compete with. I adored old Hollywood movies as a kid and grew up on English comedy. We were taught to look abroad for culture. At that time, I didn’t even know Australian film existed.”
But there were a small number of films being produced within Australia, with Australian money and talent. One of them was Walkabout (Nicolas Roeg, 1970), a film that now seems well ahead of its time. It told the story of a sister (Jenny Agutter) of about 16 years of age and brother (Lucien John) about 5, who survive the suicide of their father and are left to their own devices in the middle of the desert. They befriend a young Aborigine on walkabout, and he eventually (for time in the Western sense is suspended) leads them to the edge of Western civilization.
Walkabout is perhaps one of the only films prior to the late nineties that elevated indigenous viewpoints to an equal footing with white perspectives. For the most part, indigenous characters have been portrayed as not much more than a natural addition to the landscape. This began to change with the increased opportunities for Aboriginal filmmakers to tell their own stories. Ivan Sen’s second film Beneath Clouds tells the story of two lost children in contemporary rural Australia. One is a full-bloodied Aboriginal boy who escapes from a juvenile detention centre to be at his (father’s) funeral, the other is a half-caste girl who has run away from home. The film portrays their respective journeys and how they must intertwine. The Tracker (de Heer, 2002) tells of the search for an Aboriginal who broke the white man’s law. David Gullipil reprises his role as the black tracker attached to a search party, but adds an extra dimension to the time-honored characterization by eventually turning on the sadistic Fanatic (Gary Sweet) while still ensuring tribal justice is done.
Whereas in One Night the Moon (Perkins, 2001) the white settler (Paul Kelly) denies the help of a tracker Albert, ultimately resulting in the death of his young daughter. His reasons for rejecting Albert’s help bind neatly into the current debate surrounding reconciliation and land ownership. As Fiona Probyn and Catherine Simpson posit, “the settler's racist rejection of the black tracker is underscored by a fear that the black tracker’s knowledge of the land casts doubt over the settler's rightful ownership of it.”
The scene where Albert is banned from joining the search brilliantly depicts the multi-levelled nature of settler anxiety. The whites here (police and settlers) simultaneously know and refuse this knowledge of Albert's relationship to the land. Here we confront an uneasy admission of prior ownership in a debate that is still simmering.
But by far the most popular of the recent indigenous-themed films of the last five years is Rabbit-Proof Fence (Phillip Noyce, 2002). The film (like so many Australian films) was based on a book, Follow the Rabbit Proof Fence by Doris Pilkington Garimara, the daughter of Molly.

In 1931, Molly and her younger cousins, Gracie and Daisy, three half-caste children from Western Australia, were taken from their parents under government edict and sent to an institution; taught to forget their families, their culture, and re-invent themselves as members of "white" Australian society. The three girls navigate their way home by following the fence that has been build across the nation to stem an over-population of rabbits.
The story was internationally popular, no doubt due in no small part to the universality of the plot. But for Australian audiences the film offered something more; a filmic representation of an oft-ignored history.

As Robert Manne explains it Rabbit-Proof Fence is a window to the racial and genocidal thoughts of Australia. The ‘lost girls’ here are important for the role they play in representing actual history, especially as the ‘stolen generations’ remains an ideologically sensitive issue for non/indigenous relations.

Through the lost girl trope Australian cinema has been able to visualize many of the underlying tensions present in the national identity. From Picnic to Rabbit one can discern a working-through and a development of issues pertinent to our specific position as a European-derived, diasporic society that is still struggling with the idea of multiculturalism.

The role of the landscape in filmic representations of Australia has not been underplayed in criticism, but for good reason. The landscape has been used as an index on nationality since the Revival. As a menacing wilderness, a site of racial conflict, an allegorical mirror to personal and societal turmoil, the landscape remains a theatre in flux; it is still a contested site, still the grounds on which notions of national identity are played out.


Bibliography

Hall, Sandra. Critical Business: The New Australian Cinema in Review, Rigby Publishers, Australia, 1985.
Hall, Sandra. ‘A vivid contrast in styles’, The Bulletin, 30 August 1975, p27.
Hall Sandra. ‘Picnic cuts mustard’, Sydney Morning Herald, 2 December 1999, p16.
Laurie, Victoria. ‘“We must go on weeding out the light-coloured children”.’ Weekend Australian Magazine, 5-6 January 2002, p20-21.
McFarlane, Brian & Mayer, Geoff. New Australian Cinema: Sources and Parallels in American and British Film, Cambridge UP, Cambridge and New York, 1992.
Manne, Robert. ‘Bleeding colour’, The Age Insight, 23 February 2002, p4-5.
O’Regan, Tom. Australian National Cinema, Routledge, London and New York, 1996.
Pierce, P., The Country of Lost Children: An Australian Anxiety, Cambridge UP, Cambridge and Melbourne, 1999.
Quinn, K., ‘Drag, Dags and the Suburban Surreal.’ Metro 100, pp23-26.
Rayner, J., Contemporary Australian Cinema: An Introduction, Manchester UP, Manchester and New York, 2000.
Senses of Cinema website, www.sensesofcinema.com, various articles accessed on October 23, 2003, including “This Land is Mine/ This Land is Me”: Reconciling Harmonies in One Night the Moon, by Fiona Probyn and Catherine Simpson, and an essay on Walkabout by Justine Kelly.